13,000 years ago, during the Ice Age, the area now known as Vermont was covered by a glacier which may have been a mile deep in some locations.

12,500 – 11,200 years ago, the frigid arctic climate persisted as the melting glaciers retreated, forming the Champlain Sea where whales and sea mammals swam.  Abenaki ancestors, known as Paleoindians, located the best materials for making strong stone tools, such as spears, fluted projectile points, scrapers, and wedges. They hunted big game (caribou, sea mammals, and possibly mammoths).

11,200 – 9,000 years ago, post-glacial temperatures began to rise to sub-arctic climate conditions where some hardy plants could survive. The salty water of the Champlain Sea was replaced by fresh water, where lake trout and whitefish could live. Abenaki ancestors adapted to the tundra-like environment using their resources wisely.  The bounty of the land included caribou and muskox. Gradually ice from the melting glacier formed rivers, cutting valleys that became the landscape we recognize. Plants of the tundra made way for spruce and fir woodland as evergreen trees grew in the valleys.

9,000 – 7,500 years ago, The Early Archaic period was a time of extreme weather. The forests contained a larger variety of trees including elm, hemlock, ash, and poplar. Beavers, moose, lynx, marten, and birds occupied the forests and wetlands, and signs of catfish can be found. Abenaki families developed specialized knowledge of the region, and developed specialized tools including stone scrapers and knives to aid in daily activities. They migrated seasonally to hunt, fish, and gather wild foods.

7,500 – 6,000 years ago, During the Middle Archaic period, Abenaki people lived in small family bands. They established hunting and fishing camps through N’Dakinna (our homeland). They made scraping and cutting tools to use for daily activities such as food preparation and processing animal hides. Animal habitats expanded, and more fruit and nut-bearing trees could be found. Although the weather became less extremely hot or cold seasonally, there was still the danger of flooding.

6,000 – 3,000 years ago, Bountiful is a word that can be used to describe the Late Archaic period. By this time, the biodiversity of plants and animals in the Abenaki homelands is very similar to what we know today. Warmer weather was suitable for tree species such as oak, pine, and beech. Slower-flowing rivers deposited silt, sand, and gravel, creating meadows. The increasing variety of trees, shrubs, and nutritious plants nourished game animals, birds, and fish, as well as people. Hunting and fishing camps along the rivers expanded into communities. People used a variety of ground and flaked stone tools during this period, and used steatite (soapstone) to make the first cooking bowls. 

3,000 – 2,100 years ago, During the Early to Middle Woodland period, the oak and chestnut forest rose. Archeologists have found ample evidence of culture, religious beliefs, and technological advances with stone workmanship at several New England sites. Abenaki families moved into the valleys and made major technological advances with stone, copper, and pottery as well as plant fiber textiles and cordages. Having ceramic containers changed how food could be prepared and stored for future use. Trade networks extended from Labrador to the Gulf of Mexico, along the Atlantic coast, and west to the Great Lakes.

2,100 years ago – 1,000 years ago, By the Late Woodland period, Abenaki ancestors had developed a traditional ecological knowledge framework that continued to grow. Through trial and error, they develop plant medicines and several weaving techniques.  Diverse foodway traditions such as fishing, hunting, and foraging continue to be refined.

1,000 to 500 years ago, As the Late Woodland period continued, Abenaki people  cultivated plants such as Jerusalem artichokes, and new crops such as corn, beans and squash were introduced onto their agriculture systems. The bow and arrow were used for hunting and knives were used for food preparation. Pottery usage expanded and new styles emerged. Technology and foodways reflect the growing depth and breadth of Abenaki knowledge of their environment.

About 400 years ago, Samuel de Champlain established a colony from France and English settlers arrived in the region and began European expansion into Northeastern North America. European settlers brought very different ideas of settlement and land use, as well as domesticated animals and plants. They also brought germs across the Atlantic. Native American communities throughout the region experience the “Great Dying” (abt. 1616-1619), a plague that kills about 90% of the Native American population.